TA1 Reviews

06 / REFERENCES

Complete citation index.

All 18 primary sources cited across this site, with PubMed links and DOIs. Sortable and searchable.

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All Citations

The references below cover the complete evidence base for thymosin alpha-1 as presented across this site — foundational structural characterization (1977), hepatitis B and C RCTs (1998–2006), mechanistic studies (2004), sepsis trials and meta-analyses (2013–2025), oncology and checkpoint inhibitor data (2000–2025), COVID-19 meta-analyses (2022), and aging/immunosenescence reviews (2025).

All citations link to their primary source record on PubMed, PubMed Central, or the journal of publication. Where DOIs are available, they are listed for cross-reference.

  1. Goldstein AL, Low TL, McAdoo M, McClure J, Thurman GB, Rossio J, Lai CY, Chang D, Wang SS, Harvey C, Ramel AH, Meienhofer J. Thymosin alpha1: isolation and sequence analysis of an immunologically active thymic polypeptide. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA. 1977;74(2):725-729. ↗
  2. Sherman KE, Sjogren M, Creager RL, Damiano MA, Freeman S, Lewey S, Davis D, Root S, Weber FL, Ishak KG, Goodman ZD. Combination therapy with thymosin alpha1 and interferon for the treatment of chronic hepatitis C infection: a randomized, placebo-controlled double-blind trial. Hepatology. 1998;27(4):1128-1135. ↗
  3. You J, Zhuang L, Cheng HY, Yan SM, Yu L, Huang JH, Tang BZ, Huang ML, Ma YL, Chongsuvivatwong V, Sriplung H, Geater A, Qiao YW, Wu RX. Efficacy of thymosin alpha-1 and interferon alpha in treatment of chronic viral hepatitis B: A randomized controlled study. World Journal of Gastroenterology. 2006;12(41):6715-6721. ↗
  4. Lim SG, Wai CT, Lee YM, Dan YY, Sutedja DS, Wee A, Suresh S, Wu YJ, Machin D, Lim CC, Fock KM, Koay E, Bowden S, Locarnini S, Ishaque SM. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of thymosin-alpha1 and lymphoblastoid interferon for HBeAg-positive chronic hepatitis B. Antiviral Therapy. 2006;11(2):245-253. ↗
  5. Romani L, Bistoni F, Gaziano R, Bozza S, Montagnoli C, Perruccio K, Pitzurra L, Bellocchio S, Velardi A, Rasi G, Di Francesco P, Garaci E. Thymosin α1 activates dendritic cells for antifungal Th1 resistance through Toll-like receptor signaling. Blood. 2004;103(11):4232-4239. ↗
  6. Wu J, Zhou L, Liu J, Ma G, Kou Q, He Z, Chen J, Ou-Yang B, Chen M, Li Y, Wu X, Gu B, Chen L, Zou Z, Qiang X, Chen Y, Lin A, Zhang G, Guan X. The efficacy of thymosin alpha 1 for severe sepsis (ETASS): a multicenter, single-blind, randomized and controlled trial. Critical Care. 2013;17(1):R8. ↗
  7. Liu F, Wang HM, Wang T, Zhang YM, Zhu X. The efficacy of thymosin α1 as immunomodulatory treatment for sepsis: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. BMC Infectious Diseases. 2016;16:488. ↗
  8. Wang X, Li W, Niu C, Pan L, Li N, Li J. Thymosin alpha 1 is associated with improved cellular immunity and reduced infection rate in severe acute pancreatitis patients in a double-blind randomized control study. Inflammation. 2011;34(3):198-202. ↗
  9. Costantini C, Bellet MM, Pariano M, Renga G, Stincardini C, Goldstein AL, Garaci E, Romani L. A Reappraisal of Thymosin Alpha1 in Cancer Therapy. Frontiers in Oncology. 2019;9:873. ↗
  10. Danielli R, Cisternino F, Giannarelli D, Calabrò L, Camerini R, Savelli V, Bova G, Dragonetti R, Di Giacomo AM, Altomonte M, Maio M. Long-term follow up of metastatic melanoma patients treated with Thymosin alpha-1: investigating immune checkpoints synergy. Expert Opinion on Biological Therapy. 2018;18(11):1139-1145. ↗
  11. Garaci E, Pica F, Rasi G, Favalli C. Thymosin alpha 1 in the treatment of cancer: from basic research to clinical application. International Journal of Immunopharmacology. 2000;22(12):1067-1076. ↗
  12. Dinetz E, Lee E. Comprehensive Review of the Safety and Efficacy of Thymosin Alpha 1 in Human Clinical Trials. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine. 2024;30(2):30-38. ↗
  13. Shang W, Zhang B, Ren Y, Wang W, Zhou D, Li Y. Thymosin alpha1 use in adult COVID-19 patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis on clinical outcomes. International Immunopharmacology. 2022;113(Pt A):109584. ↗
  14. Zhang HT, Liu FJ, Wang DQ, Xiong YX, Zhao YY, He WZ, Zhang PX, Zheng SY, Xia B, Situ Y, Wang MR, Liu QW, Hu Y, Xia LP, Qiu B, Liu H. A preliminary analysis of integrating thymosin α1 into concurrent chemoradiotherapy and consolidative immunotherapy in unresectable locally advanced non-small cell lung cancer. Translational Lung Cancer Research. 2025;14(2). ↗
  15. Gu B, Zhou Y, Nie Y, Wang L, Liang L, Liao Z, Wen J, Guan X, Chen M, Wu J, Pei F. Efficacy of thymosin α1 for sepsis: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology. 2025;15:1673959. ↗
  16. Wu J, et al. The efficacy and safety of thymosin α1 for sepsis (TESTS): multicentre, double blinded, randomised, placebo controlled, phase 3 trial. BMJ. 2025;388:e082583. ↗
  17. Simonova MA, Ivanov I, Shoshina NS, Komyakova AM, Makarov DA, Baranovskii DS, Klabukov ID, Telepenina KP, Atiakshin DA, Shegay PV, Kaprin AD, Stepanenko VN. Aging and Thymosin Alpha-1. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2025;26(23):11470. ↗
  18. Solmonese L, Lofiego MF, Fazio C, Marzani F, Piazzini F, Bello E, Celesti F, Giacobini G, Wang X, Maio M, Coral S, Di Giacomo AM, Covre A. The Immunomodulatory Activity of Thymosin Alpha 1 on Tumor Cell Lines and Distinct Immune Cell Subsets. OncoTargets and Therapy. 2025;18:955371. ↗
  19. Pica F, Chimenti MS, Gaziano R, Bue C, Casalinuovo IA, Triggianese P, et al. Serum thymosin alpha1 levels in patients with chronic inflammatory autoimmune diseases. Clinical and Experimental Immunology. 2016;185(3):310-318. ↗
  20. Romani L, Bistoni F, Montagnoli C, et al. Thymosin alpha1 activates dendritic cell tryptophan catabolism and establishes a regulatory environment for balance of inflammation and tolerance. Blood. 2006;108(7):2265-2274. ↗
  21. Dominari A, Hathaway Iii D, Pandav K, et al. Thymosin alpha 1: A comprehensive review of the literature. World J Virol. 2020;9(5):67-78. ↗